Translation by Xie Tianhai
About the author
Yang Zai, a Millennial who studied Chinese Literature, has served as a textbook editor and overseas education consultant. He is currently based in Hong Kong and working as a freelancer, focusing on the writing and studying of ancient scripts. His works can be found in magazines such as “Daai Tau Coi (Big Head Cabbage) Literary Monthly” produced by Hong Kong Pupil Literature Monthly Magazine, and “Hong Kong Literature”.
About the translator
Xie Tianhai, born in 1974, serves as a faculty member at Tianjin Foreign Studies University and holds a Ph.D. in Humanities from Florida State University. His research focuses encompass American short stories, Hollywood cinema, and creative writing. He has authored numerous scholarly articles and translated over a million words from English to Chinese. Among these translations are Lonely Hearts of the Cosmos, A Lifetime Reading Plan, Little Foreign Devil, and Taste. Furthermore, he has contributed a multitude of stories to Chinese publications such as Folk Literature and Biography Legend.
Word count: ~4600 | Est. read time: 24 mins
Main text：
In the quest to understand the mythical creature known as the dragon from a scientific standpoint, the figure of “Zhulong” has emerged as a particularly fascinating subject of study.
Accounts of Zhulong are deeply rooted in ancient literature, including the Shanhai Jing (Classic of Mountains and Seas), Chu Ci (Songs of Chu), and “Huainanzi” (The Master of Huainan). A notable description from the Shanhai Jing: Da Huang Bei Jing (Classic of Mountains and Seas: Great Wilderness Northern Classic) reads: “In the realm beyond the northwest sea and to the north of the Red River, lies Mount Zhangwei. Here dwells a divine being, possessing a human visage and a serpentine form, its body bathed in a crimson hue. Its eyes, when open, illuminate the world, and when closed, plunge it into darkness. This entity neither consumes food nor requires sleep or breath; it is the harbinger of storms and is revered as the luminary of the nine shadows, hence the name Zhulong.” Another passage from the Shanhai Jing: Hai Wai Bei Jing (Classic of Mountains and Seas: Overseas Northern Classic) describes the creature: “The deity of Zhong Mountain is known as Zhuyin. Its gaze brings forth daylight, its blink ushers in night, its breath chills the air with winter, and its exhalation warms the land with summer. This being neither drinks nor eats nor breathes; its breath is the very essence of wind, and its form stretches for a thousand miles. It is said to dwell east of Wuqi, possess a human face, serpentine body, and a colour of red, residing beneath the slopes of Zhong Mountain.” The Chu Ci: Tian Wen (Songs of Chu: Heavenly Questions) poses a rhetorical question about this enigmatic creature: “In the northwest, where the heavens open, what kind of air flows through? Where the sun’s rays do not reach, how does Zhulong cast its light?”
Lastly, the Huainanzi: Dixing Xun (King of Huainan: Terrestrial Forms) adds to the lore: “Zhulong resides in the northern regions beyond Yanmen, concealed by the mountains of Wei Yu, never witnessing the sun’s light. This divine entity is depicted with a human face, a dragon’s body, and is without feet.”
Throughout history, there has been much speculation about the true identity of the mythical creature known as the “Zhulong”. Some scholars equate it with “Zhu Rong,” a deity from ancient texts; others identify it with the “Goulong,” “Hou Bo,” or “Tu Bo,” who are said to govern the netherworld in ancient literature; some see it as the constellations of the Azure Dragon; and there are those who argue that the Zhulong myth is a transformation of ancient fertility cults. These are just a few of the many diverse theories.
A novel viewpoint that has emerged since the 1980s and is increasingly accepted by scholars is that the Zhulong is none other than the Aurora Borealis. This idea may seem far-fetched at first: a mythical dragon from historical legends being associated with the natural spectacle of the Northern Lights. However, as we delve into research and unravel the enigma of this “thousand-mile-long, human-faced red serpent, whose eyes control the cycle of day and night,” we cannot help but be awestruck by the vivid imagination of our ancestors.
Verification of Zhulong as Aurora Borealis
The concept that “Zhulong” corresponds to the “Aurora Borealis” was first proposed by Japanese scholar Shigeru Kanda approximately a century ago. This theory gained traction in the 1980s when scholars Zhang Minghua and He Xin independently echoed this idea. Although their arguments contained some inconsistencies and areas open to debate, the value of their contributions cannot be overlooked. In the 1990s, Tsai Chemao from Taiwan refined their arguments by highlighting their essence and revising less convincing aspects. He provided further evidence by examining the direction of Zhulong’s appearance, its location, and the visual similarities between Zhulong and the aurora. Drawing on the research of these scholars from the late 20th century and the new scientific insights from the 21st century, we can explore the relationship between Zhulong and the Aurora Borealis.
The aurora is a natural light display caused by charged particles from the solar wind, which are directed by Earth’s magnetic field towards high-latitude regions near the Arctic and Antarctic circles. Upon entering Earth’s upper atmosphere layer, these particles collide with atmospheric gases, emitting light. This light is the aurora, a spectacular and diverse array of colours and forms that can be observed in the sky by those fortunate enough to be at the right place, at the right time.
It is intriguing to note that Earth’s magnetic poles do not align with the geographic poles determined by Earth’s rotation. The magnetic poles of Earth’s magnetic field have always been within a range of approximately one to two thousand kilometres around the geographic North and South Poles, drifting and meandering around.
The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, appears in the northern sky, coinciding with the region where Zhulong was said to dwell.
Classic of Mountains and Seas, a text dating back to the Warring States period through the early Han Dynasty, is over two millennia old. In the Classic of Mountains and Seas: Overseas Northern Classic, it is documented that “The deity of Zhong Mountain is named Zhuyin.” Similarly, Classic of Mountains and Seas: Great Wilderness Northern Classic records, “Beyond the northwest sea, to the north of the Red River, lies Mount Zhangwei. There resides a deity, with a human face and a serpentine body, red in hue… This is known as Zhu Jiuyin, also referred to as Zhulong.” In these accounts, “Zhuyin” was identified as “Zhu Jiuyin,” synonymous with “Zhulong,” the deity of Zhong Mountain. Scholars, after scrutinising the ancient pronunciation of “Mount Zhangwei” and various ancient texts, have concluded that “Mount Zhangwei” is indeed “Zhong Mountain.”
Gu Shi, in his commentary on Commentary on the Western Expedition of Emperor Mu of Zhou, analysed the phonetic similarity and interchangeability of the characters for “bell” (钟 zhong) and “pounding” (舂 chong), deducing that “Zhong Mountain” is equivalent to “Chong Mountain.” He further explained that from the Han Dynasty onwards, the mountain was referred to as “Onion Ridge” (葱岭), due to the abundance of wild onions or the lush cliffs. Further supported by evidence from other ancient texts, he identified “Zhong Mountain” as the Pamir Plateau, located in the far west of China, to the northwest of the Kunlun Mountains.
The Pamir Plateau, anciently known as Buzhou Mountain, was first mentioned in the Shanhan Jing: Da Huang Xi Jing (Classic of Mountains and Seas: Great Wilderness Western Classic) as being “Beyond the northwest sea, in the corner of the vast wilderness, there stands a mountain that does not close, named Buzhou.” Qu Yuan also made reference to it in Chuci: Li Sao (Songs of Chu: Encountering Sorrow) with the verse “The path turns left at Buzhou, aiming for the Western Sea as the destination.” This indicates that as early as the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, there was contact and exchange with the people around or beyond the Pamir Plateau in the Western Regions. During the prosperous Western Han Dynasty, when the nation’s strength was formidable, merchants travelling along the Silk Road to Mediterranean countries would necessarily traverse this region.
The renowned myth of Gonggong crashing into Buzhou Mountain indeed refers to this very “Buzhou Mountain.” The Kunlun Mountains, home to the Queen Mother of the Western Skies, are part of the Kunlun range that extends eastward from the Pamir Plateau. Furthermore, the Records of the Grand Historian with Three Commentaries: Annals of the Three Sovereigns documents Fuxi and Nüwa’s residence on the Kunlun Mountains. These Kunlun myths, which span a history of 3.6 million years, detail the pivotal journey of humankind from its origins to development, reflecting the myriad customs of China’s diverse ethnic groups throughout their survival and evolution. Thus, it is not surprising that Zhulong, also appearing “beyond the northwestern sea,” would reside on the Pamir Plateau.
More specifically, accounts of the position of Zhulong’s appearance are frequently associated with the “northwest” direction, such as “beyond the northwest sea” and “the northwest gate opens.” This indicates that the deity of Zhong Mountain—Zhulong—dwelled on the Pamir Plateau, situated in the northwest of China. During the Warring States period, the Pamir Plateau was considered the frontier, hence it could also be referred to as the “mountain at the edge of the border of Chong.” In the perception of people at that time, this was the tallest mountain in the world, and indeed, the highest on the northwestern frontier.
In addition to indications of Zhong Mountain being in the northwest direction, some ancient texts provide detailed descriptions of the mountain’s environment. For instance, Chu Ci: Da Zhao (Songs of Chu: The Great Summons) describes “the sky white and bright, the cold congealed and solid,” depicting a scene of “a vast expanse of flying snow and frozen water.” The Pamir Plateau is divided into eastern and western sections, with the eastern part located within China’s borders. This area features an open and expansive terrain, composed of two snow-capped mountain ranges stretching from northwest to southeast, interspersed with river valleys and basins. Xuanzang of the Tang Dynasty, in Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, referred to the Pamir Plateau as “Pamir,” noting: “It lies between two snow-capped mountains, thus the cold wind is piercing and strong, with snow flying in spring and summer, and wind blowing day and night.” This shows that the environmental characteristics of the Pamir Plateau match perfectly with the depiction of Zhong Mountain in Songs of Chu: The Great Summons.
It is also noteworthy that the absolute altitude of the eastern Pamir Plateau ranges around 5,000 to 6,000 metres, with a relative height not exceeding 1,000 to 1,500 metres. Some sceptics of the theory that the mythical Zhulong is the aurora borealis make baseless assertions without first investigating the true location of Zhong Mountain. They claim that “Zhulong is a mountain deity dwelling at the base of the mountain,” “Zhulong is positioned very low, near the horizon,” and “the mountain can obscure Zhulong,” based solely on ancient texts that mention “the God of Zhong Mountain” and “residing beneath Zhong Mountain,” without considering the actual geographical context. However, upon realising that “Zhong Mountain” is the Pamir Plateau, known as the “Roof of the World” by ancient Persians, such misconceptions should be dispelled.
Naturally, some might raise questions regarding the account found in King of Huainan: Terrestrial Forms, which locates Zhulong at the north of Yanmen, beneath the mountains of Weiyu. Zhang Minghua’s research suggests that the Yanmen and Weiyu Mountain mentioned in Huainanzi correspond to the Yanmen North or the Hetao region as it is known today. The discrepancy between King of Huainan and Classic of Mountains and Seas, as explained by Tsai Chemao, can be traced back to the fact that Han Dynasty’s King of Huainan, in its descriptions of Zhulong, drew heavily from earlier texts such as Songs of Chu and Classic of Mountains and Seas. However, the Han people who observed the aurora in the vicinity of Yanmen Mountain, associated the myth of Zhulong to this phenomenon, hence situating Zhulong at the north of Yanmen rather than at Zhong Mountain, as witness and recorded during the Pre-Qin era.
The Pamir Plateau, referred to as Zhong Mountain in Classic of Mountains and Seas and located “beyond the northwest sea,” aligns with the direction ancient observers would have faced when witnessing the aurora. For instance, The Book of Jin: Emperor’s Annals Seventh Emperor Xianzong Cheng documents an event in the northwest during the fourth year of the Xianhe era, stating, “In that year, the sky split in the northwest.” Other records include the Book of Jin: Astronomical Treatises, which noted, “In the second year of Yuankang under Emperor Hui, in February, there was a massive rift in the northwest sky,” and the Book of Sui: Astronomical Treatises, recording, “In the third year (the third year of the Yuantong era of Northern Qi), on the Wuyin day of the fifth month, during the first watch of the night, in the northwest, a crimson air filled the sky, which started to dissipate at midnight.” These accounts of the “sky splitting” are ancient descriptions of the aurora phenomenon.
After understanding the location of Zhulong, to further establish that Zhulong represents the aurora phenomenon, it is necessary to demonstrate the morphological connection between the two.
Summarising the ancient texts’ descriptions of Zhulong’s image, we find its characteristics to be “a body stretching for thousands of miles”, “a human face with a red, serpentine body”, and “with a human face and a dragon’s body but without feet”. Setting aside the “human face, serpentine body” description, which may stem from totem culture and reverence, we are left with two predominant features: “thousands of miles long” and “red in colour.”
Research by Sheng-I Hsu, Chang Wei Lun, and Hsiao Chien Hui from National Taiwan Normal University categorises the historical records of the aurora into three main types of descriptions. The first type uses star-related terms like “ominous stars” and “auspicious stars,” exemplified by “Wang Shi” in Records of the Grand Historian: Astronomical Treatises, that “Its shape resembles a large meteor, moving sinuously like a snake with a dark, bluish-black hue, appearing from a distance as if covered in fine hair or feathers.” The term ‘Wang’ signifies something bent or crooked, while ‘Shi’ denotes an arrow. The ‘feather’ serves as a descriptive image of the parallel short beams in the aurora. Coupled with descriptions such as ‘snake-like’ and ‘dark blue,’ it depicts an aurora image characterised by a horizon black, recurved radiation bands. The second type employs vivid, visual language, such as “red fire,” “celestial clouds,” and “sky split.” The third and most significant type refers to the aurora as “Qi,” with terms like “red air,” “yellow air,” and “purple air.”
The Luancheng County Chronicles: Volume of Auspicious and Strange Events, dating back to the Xianfeng period of the Qing Dynasty, records: “In the spring of the ninth year of Yimao, on day Renchen of the third month, the sky dog traversed, turning left towards the northeast with a thunderous sound. In autumn, on the night of Guimao in August, red air rose in the northwest, stretching to the northeast, and began to dissipate at dawn.” The “red air rising in the northwest” during the ninth year of Xianfeng corresponds to the year 1859, and the night of “Guimao in August” was the evening of 1st September that year. Historical data indicates that on the 1st and 2nd of September 1859, the largest recorded geomagnetic storm occurred, auroras were visible across the globe and even near the equator. This incident became known as the Carrington Event.
While ancient texts refer to auroras in a spectrum of colours such as “red air,” “purple air,” and “yellow air,” one might wonder why Zhulong is depicted solely as red. Dai Nianzu and Chen Meidong argued: “The higher the altitude at which auroras occur, the more intense the red light appears. Additionally, the average altitude of auroras increases as the latitude decreases. This results in auroras at mid to low latitudes having a higher concentration of red hues. Consequently, it is logical that ancient descriptions of auroras in the eastern regions predominantly feature red as their main colour.”
During the auroral events observed in China last December, parts of Heilongjiang and Xinjiang witnessed red or green auroras. The appearance of the red-green “watermelon-coloured aurora” in Mohe County’s Arctic Village generated considerable interest and discussion. Experts note that “green auroras are even more elusive in China.”
Given this information, it is more plausible that the Zhulong in Chinese folklore is a ‘red dragon’ rather than a ‘green dragon,’ ‘yellow dragon,’ or ‘purple dragon.’ The aforementioned evidence strongly supports the notion that the ‘red air’ described by ancients is indeed the ‘Aurora Borealis.’ The imagery of the thousand-mile-long red dragon serves as a mythological representation of the aurora’s majestic presence.
Debates on the Identification of Zhulong with the Aurora Borealis
Certainly, there are dissenting views regarding the assertion that the Zhulong refers to the Aurora Borealis. Among the various challenges raised, a prevalent objection is that it is incorrect to equate the “North Pole” described in ancient texts with the contemporary geographical term “Arctic Circle.”
It is crucial to clarify that the term “North Pole” in ancient Chinese texts generally signifies the “extreme northern land,” essentially the “northernmost end.” This “north” is purely directional and does not pinpoint any specific location. It could refer to the northern regions within the country at that time or even areas beyond its borders. However, it certainly does not correspond to the geographical location known as the “Arctic Circle.” Therefore, equating the “North Pole” from ancient texts with the “Arctic Circle” is clearly a misstep.
Nevertheless, some criticisms directed at the early advocates of “Zhulong as the Aurora Borealis” theory, who were accused of naivety for considering the “North Pole” in ancient texts as the “Arctic Circle,” seem unwarranted to me. In the mid-to-late 20th century, televisions, computers, and the internet had not been popularised in China, transportation was also still inconvenient. As such, it was impossible for people to access visual materials of the Aurora Borealis or to witness it directly. This led to a general lack of familiarity with the appearance of the aurora among the populace. To elucidate the connection between Zhulong and the aurora effectively, it was essential to introduce the actual image of the aurora first. That was when the more widely known aurora associated with the Arctic Circle and its environmental characteristics became more frequently cited and described. To many, it was natural to associate these auroral phenomena with the Arctic Circle, hence the common references to “Arctic Circle” and “Aurora Borealis” in their discussions.
As one of the scholars who first proposed that the Zhulong is the Aurora Borealis, He Xin, in his book The Origins of the Gods (later renamed New Explorations into Ancient Chinese Myths and History), interprets the phrase “under the pivot” from Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals: Chapter on Origins as “under the North Pole,” and suggests that ancient Chinese people had already ventured into regions north of Siberia during the Neolithic Age. These assertions have been deemed inappropriate by subsequent scholars, who have offered numerous corrections. However, these critiques do not undermine the argument that the Zhulong is indeed the Aurora Borealis.
A crucial distinction to make is that the perspective suggesting Zhulong as the Aurora Borealis has never aimed, nor should it aim, to prove that “Zhulong is the Aurora within the Arctic Circle.” To be more precise, we could articulate it as follows: “Zhulong is the red aurora that appears in China’s Pamir region,” or even more succinctly, “Zhulong is the aurora.” In this context, the term “North Pole” bears no relation to the “Arctic Circle” or the modern geographical concept of the “North Pole”—it is simply a term indicating direction.
Some scholars challenge the notion that auroras, which are commonly seen in high latitude areas around 50 to 60 degrees, could be frequently observed in China. They point out that only a small number of regions in the northeastern and northwestern parts of the country have latitudes that are approximately 50 degrees or close to it, suggesting that regular sightings of the aurora are improbable. Scholars have further contended that the detailed portrayal of the Zhulong in the Shanhai Jing could not have been inspired by rare sightings of the aurora, which ancient people might have observed only once or twice.
To address the scepticism, we must consider two key points: Was it truly impossible for ancient people to regularly observe the aurora? And if not, considering the latitude constraints mentioned, how did ancient ancestors in China come to witness the aurora, and what led them to envision and document it as Zhulong?
A wealth of evidence for auroral phenomena exists within ancient texts, as previously highlighted. Numerous scholars have delved into the study of these ancient auroral events. For instance, Sheng-I Hsu and his team from Taiwan have meticulously catalogued records of ancient Chinese auroras, identifying a total of 294 occurrences from the legendary two to three thousand years BCE to 1747 AD. During the Western Han Dynasty, auroras were perceived as divine lights or spiritual energies, harbingers of auspicious signs. Post the Western Han, there was a marked increase in associating auroras with warfare, bloodshed, and an array of natural disasters. Beyond the extensive textual evidence, ancient China also produced illustrations of auroras, indicating that these events were not rare occurrences in the ancient Chinese sky.
The oldest known records of auroras in Chinese literature date back nearly three millennia. The Bamboo Annals, a historical chronicle from the Warring States period (3rd to 4th century BCE) in the state of Wei, documents the extraordinary celestial events alongside historical narratives of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. One such record states, “In the final years of King Zhao’s reign, under a clear night sky, a spectrum of lights pierced through Ziweiyuan (the Purple Forbidden Enclosure). The king embarked on a southern expedition from which he never returned.” This account describes a night during the end of King Zhao of Zhou’s reign when a multicoloured aurora was visible across the northern sky, coinciding with the year the king left on his southern voyage but lost his life.
In 2022, researchers Marinus Anthony van der Sluijs from Canada and Hisashi Hayakawa from Nagoya University published their findings in the journal Advances in Space Research, titled A candidate auroral report in the Bamboo Annals, indicating a possible extreme space weather event in the early 10th century BCE. Utilising the most up-to-date Chinese historical chronology, the researchers concluded that the “spectrum of lights” was most likely observed in either 977 BCE or 957 BCE.
Researchers have discovered that records of “five-coloured lights” coincide with the occurrence of geomagnetic storms. When mid-latitude auroras are bright enough, they can create a spectacular display of various colours. During the mid-10th century BCE, Earth’s magnetic north pole tilted towards the Eurasian continent, approximately 15 degrees of latitude closer to central China than it is at present. Consequently, the auroral oval zone, estimated to be at a magnetic latitude of 40 degrees or lower, could have been visible in central China. This finding undoubtedly provides a plausible explanation for the second point of consideration mentioned earlier.
In a similar vein, Benjamin Fong Chao, former Dean of the Department of Earth Sciences at National Central University in Taiwan, offered a comparable scientific explanation in a 2009 lecture: “Due to the drift of the magnetic poles, it is possible that three to four thousand years ago, the northern magnetic pole was on the Asian side.” He further noted: “In fact, if the current northern magnetic pole continues its drift, it may cross the North Pole and move towards Siberia within a few decades. I speculate that in ancient times, early inhabitants of the Central Plains could have seen the aurora if they were just a bit further north. Thus, I’ve reached a small conclusion: Zhulong has left for America but will still return.”
The northernmost point of China’s territory, Mohe, is the sole location in the country where the phenomena of polar day and polar night can still be observed. Mohe’s Arctic Village, being the northernmost town in China, experiences nearly 24 hours of daylight around the summer solstice each year. Coupled with the explanation of the magnetic poles’ drift, we can boldly hypothesise that during the era when the Zhulong myth was born, ancestors in “slightly further north” regions could have witnessed not only the aurora but also the phenomena of polar day and polar night. This could account for the mythological descriptions of Zhulong’s divine powers, such as “its closing of the eyes brings darkness, its opening brings light,” “its breath brings winter, its exhalation brings summer,” and “its breath governs the seasons, its eyes the transition from twilight to dawn.”
Taking into account the several occurrences of auroras in our country last year, as referenced earlier, we can also gather additional evidence to bolster the aforementioned perspective. Around 7 PM on the 1st of December, Mohe once again observed a significant auroral phenomenon. Subsequently, the northern part of Beijing experienced its second recorded aurora, and for the first time, multiple locations in Ergun City, Inner Mongolia, detected the aurora phenomenon. One of the reasons for the appearance of auroras in low-latitude areas like Beijing is the gradual drift of Earth’s magnetic poles towards the direction of Russia and China. This is a concrete manifestation of Benjamin Fong Chao’s statement that “(the northern magnetic pole) may cross the North Pole and move towards Siberia within a few decades.”
Prominent American Sinologist Edward L. Shaughnessy proposed in his work Before Confucius that “Still, the attributes of the dragon were so firmly fixed in China’s ancient mythology that it had to be based on some natural phenomenon.” Since dragon’s image in early Chinese mythology varies, and related myths and legends differ, it remains debatable whether all specific symbols of dragons in Chinese mythology are based on the observation of natural phenomena. However, based on the above, we can affirm that the Zhulong, this thousand-mile-long red dragon, is undoubtedly the natural phenomenon of the aurora. As for later myths of Zhulong describing it as “having a human face,” “five legs,” and “eyes being vertical and closing into a slit-like appearance.” Tsai Chemao’s view that these were gradually added and appended over time is quite reasonable.
References:
Tsai Chemao: A Study of the Zhulong Myth: Confirming with Modern Astronomy
Benjamin Fong Chao: The Mission of Pursuing Dragons – Tracing the Origin of Dragons from Earth Sciences
Sheng-I Hsu, et al.: Aurora – The Dancing Sprite of Heaven and Earth
Marinus Anthony van der Sluijs, Hisashi Hayakawa : A candidate auroral report in the Bamboo Annals, indicating a possible extreme space weather event in the early 10th century BCE
Cheng Kat Hung Dennis: On the Development of Overseas Sinology: Focussing on Europe and America
Edward L. Shaughnessy: Before Confucius
Han Hu-chu: A Query about the Idea of Equating the Zhulong Myth with Polar Lights
Online resources:
– Wu Jingyi (China Youth Network): Northern China’s ‘Aurora’ Goes Viral, not as ‘Beautiful’ as It Seems
– Blogger Shitou Bu: The True Face of the Dragon – 17: Is Zhulong Really the Aurora Borealis?
– Blogger Hangtian Fushe: Records of Auroras in Ancient Chinese Books
Translation Editor: Xuan